Ecological Footprint

Abstract

Whilst there have been numerous categorizations of high-rise buildings according to their function, architectural style, height or structural strategy, historically little work has been undertaken to classify them based on factors affecting their energy performance - their shape and form, façade, attitude to natural lighting, ventilation strategies, etc. This paper aims to rectify this by examining the history of energy use in tall buildings, from their origins in North America in the late 19th century to the present day. In doing so, it categorizes tall buildings into five chronological 'generations', based on their energy consumption characteristics.

Introduction

Over the past 120 years, the high-rise typology has undergone a variety of paradigm shifts, influenced by regulatory changes, developments in technology and materials, changes in architectural thinking and economic issues. Developments such as the New York Zoning Law of 1916, the post-war innovations in curtain wall façades and the energy crises of the 1970s have all impacted on the way tall buildings of the time were designed and operated. These events also had a significant impact on the quantity of, and way in which, energy was consumed in tall buildings of the time. In today's context, with climate change arguably the greatest challenge of the modern world, it is well known that the creation, running and maintenance of the built environment accounts for more than 50% of greenhouse gas emissions globally. In light of this, frenzied research has - and continues to be - undertaken in order to reduce the carbon footprint of high-rise buildings. However, it is also interesting to look back at the energy consumption characteristics of tall buildings throughout history; to examine how and why these changed and to learn possible lessons for the future.

Discussion & Analysis

Born out of expansion in functional iron alloy framing and the creation of the lift in the mid-19th years, big buildings rapidly disperse over North America, becoming the emblem of economic growth and prosperity. The dwelling protection Building, accomplished in Chicago in 1885, is generally considered as the first of these high-rises, whereas debate continues considering its credentials for this title. We can state that this first generation of tall buildings originally needed somewhat little functioning power as technologies such as air-conditioning and fluorescent lighting were not yet developed. Energy was predominantly consumed in the heating system of occupied spaces and supplying upright transport between floors.

Ventilation was achieved naturally via opening windows and artificial lighting levels were very low - typically between 2 and 4 foot-candles1 in office buildings in 1913 due to the inefficiencies of lighting technologies of the time. Whilst these buildings utilized the latest structural innovations, their envelope construction remained heavily influenced by traditional, load-bearing technology; external walls, although freed from any structural role, were often quite thick, of masonry construction, with an internal finish of dense plasterwork. Windows remained as small punctured holes within walls, occupying only 20% - 30% of the façade area. Whilst this building bears from a lack of thermal insulation (i.e. due to the ...