VALUES AND LIFESTYLES

Values and lifestyles

Values and lifestyles

1.

Values and lifestyles are psychographic variables that give a clearer orientation to companies to identify the ecological consumer segment. In this sense, we find research that utilises psychographic variables in the definition of the ecological consumer profile and that has obtained very significant relationships among these variables and the ecological behaviour (Ramanaiah and Sharpe, 1997; Kaiser, Wölfing and Fuhrer, 1999; Kaiser, Ranney, Hartig and Bowler, 1999; Chan, 1999; Ramanaiah et al., 2000; Fraj et al., 2005). The main problem, which authors have had to cope with, is the difficulty of measuring them.

Values are considered as the criterion that individuals use to select and justify their actions and to value objects and the other's conducts. Every individual has a specific value structure. Kahle (1996) claimed that values are shaped by means of people's experiences and learning process. Thus, people who behave, for example, in an environmental way, express their value of respect towards nature by having a positive attitude towards buying ecological products, recycling and taking part in activities that seek environmental protection.

In this respect, there have been different classifications trying to gather the generality of the value system, its relevance and its formation and changing process. For instance, Rokeach (1973) presented two groups of values: terminal (those referred to the goals that people would like to achieve); and instrumental (those that represent the means or the preferred ways of behaving in order to obtain the first ones).

Homer and Kahle (1988) proposed another classification that regroups some of Rokeach's values in those internally oriented (self-fulfilment, emotion, sense of success, dignity) and those externally oriented (sense of property, self-respect, safety). The first proved to be positively related to some favourable attitudes towards ecological consumption, and the second showed a negative relation with them.

Within this framework, researchers wonder if it would be possible to develop a universal set of values recognisable in different cultures. Thus, Schwartz (1992, 1994), based on Rokeach's research, contributed with his studies on the individual level of values, complementing Hofstede's (1984 cited in Schwartz (1992)) research, which focused on the social level. This author developed a universal value structure grouped into four dimensions: self-transcendence (universalism, benevolence); self-enhancement (power, achievement); openness (self-direction, stimulation, hedonism); and tradition (tradition, conformity, security).

According to Gonzalez (2000), from the marketing point of view, one of the value orientations is the one that establishes connections between this variable and a lifestyle in order to identify the market segment and facilitate the company's access through diverse strategies.

From this perspective, we analyse the influence of values and lifestyles on ecological behaviour. Literature shows some interesting results that we describe below.

Some researchers have found positive relationships between values and lifestyles and ecological behaviour. Thus, De Young (1985-1986) concluded that an austere and moderate lifestyle was positively related to glass and paper recycling. In the same way, Lievers et al. (1986) proved that people with conservative and religious values and lifestyles liked to contribute actively to the society ...