Sir Isaac Newton

Introduction

Sir Isaac Newton, English natural philosopher, mathematician, and physical scientist, revolutionized the theoretical concepts regarding the physical laws that govern the universe. The impact of his contributions to the understanding of the mathematical perspective of motion, space, and time provided the means to further challenge both the Aristotelian foundations of science and ecclesiastical authority over science. Additionally, Newton's metaphysical distinctions based on his theoretical principles drew criticism from many theologians and philosophers of the Enlightenment traditions, including rationalist and empiricist.

Early Life

Praised as a scientist and ridiculed as a philosopher, Newton attempted to construct a metaphysical bridge in order to reconcile the mechanics of the universe with God, but his attempt was vastly underscored or dismissed. For Newton, there had been a conflict between traditional or orthodox religion and science that he now attempted to overcome in presenting his own unorthodox metaphysical approach to God and God's significance for the universe and humankind. Newton's major works include Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), Opticks (1704), and Arithmetica Universalis (1707).

Newton's scientific, albeit philosophical, explorations in the laws that govern the physical universe are steeped in cursory observations, rational speculations, and mathematical computations. Regarding the temporal nature of the universe and its relation to physical matter, the abstract notions of motion and space are irrevocably united within the conceptual framework of a theoretical and sometimes theological framework. Beyond the eternal, infinite, and geocentric concepts set forth by Aristotle (384-322 BCE), Ptolemy (c. 90-168 CE), and, theologically, Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE), the scientific advancements of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) changed and influenced previous perceptions of space, motion, and more important, time. Newton influenced and integrated advancements in both science and philosophy within his perspective; he furthered scientific advancements by creating a mathematically systematic approach to explain the natural phenomena of the universe. These secular contributions to science and mathematics, along with a theistic cosmological perspective, had secured the separation of physics from theology. Interesting and yet obscure, the the-istic tendencies within Newton's cosmology possess a confounding blend of ontology and teleology.

Newton's Contribution to Physics

Newton provided a scientific explanation for the symbiotic relationship of gravitation and motion. In the explanation of the physical phenomena observed on this planet and in the universe, he calculated that gravitation had an effect on physical bodies, from earthly objects to celestial bodies. In resolving the terms of motion, Newton had stated three laws:

Motion is constant until an external force is applied.

Force can be calculated by the relationship between mass (m) and acceleration (a); thus F = ma.

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

These explanations in terms of motion have unique implications for the concept of time. Time and space, interrelated and reflected in Newton's established laws, are not in constant and fluid motion. Objects exist in absolute time, and absolute space is perceived in relation to motion. This would question the exact nature of space—space being a void or some reactionary force—and the conceptualization of time in terms of the interactions ...