SELF EFFICACY: DIFFICULTIES OF MEASUREMENT

Self Efficacy: Difficulties of Measurement

Self Efficacy: Difficulties of Measurement

Introduction

Self-efficacy refers to the confidence in one's ability to behave in such a way as to produce a desirable outcome (Borkowski, 2008). Self-efficacy makes a difference in how people feel, think, and act. In terms of feeling, a low sense of self-efficacy for a particular situation is positively related to depression and anxiety. High self-efficacy for a specific situation allows one to deal better with uncertainty, distress, and conflict. In terms of thinking, the strong sense of competence resulting from high self-efficacy facilitates enhanced cognitive processes and academic performance. Finally, in terms of action, self-related cognitions are a major ingredient of the motivation process.

Self-efficacy levels can enhance or impede motivation. People with high self-efficacy in a particular domain of human functioning choose to perform more challenging tasks. They set higher goals and stick to them. Actions are preshaped in thought, and people anticipate either optimistic or pessimistic expected outcomes of a specific task in line with their level of self-efficacy. Once an action has been taken, high self-efficacious persons invest more effort and persist longer than those low in self-efficacy to accomplish a specific task. When setbacks occur, those with high self-efficacy recover more quickly and maintain commitment to their goals (Schwarzer, 1992). Self-efficacy levels for specific cardiovascular health-related behaviours may be an important determinant of future cardiovascular health. Dietary self-efficacy, physical activity self-efficacy, and cessation of smoking self-efficacy are among the examples that will be discussed where self-efficacy for specific health-related behaviours likely plays a large role in future cardiovascular risk factor profiles. The following sections will review the evidence supporting links between self-efficacy of specific cardiovascular health-related behaviours and specific well-established cardiovascular risk factors.

Assessing the multiple dimensions of self-efficacy

Bandura (1986) argued that self-efficacy expectations consist of three dimensions: magnitude, generality, and strength. Each of these dimensions implies different measurement procedures. Magnitude refers to the ordering of tasks by difficulty level. Generality concerns the extent to which efficacy expectations about a specific situation can be generalized to other situations. Finally, strength refers to a judgment of how certain one is of being able to succeed at a particular task (Mudde et al., 1995).

There is no standard measurement for self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, unlike dimensions of personality, must be considered in terms of a specific situation (Gerin et al., 1995). Therefore, different measures are used to assess self-efficacy for each particular health-related behaviour studied. In addition, a different measure is often used to assess each of the three dimensions of self-efficacy for a particular health-related behaviour.

Self-efficacy and Smoking Cessation

Cigarette smoking has been identified as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, studies indicate that patients with coronary artery disease who stop smoking have a lower mortality from all causes of death and a less frequent occurrence of myocardial infarction in particular than those who continue to smoke (Vlieststra et al., 1986). Self-efficacy in the area of smoking cession has been thoroughly studied. Thus, this is an excellent first example of ...