NICOTINE

Nicotine Dependence and Interventions



Nicotine Dependence and Interventions

Introduction

Nicotine dependence is a complex bio-psychosocial phenomenon that originates from learning theory. The most parsimonious explanation is that nicotine's effects on neurobiological substrates interact with behavioral, emotional, and cognitive domains to create dependence (Jack & Sakire, 2009). Evidence also suggests that chronic use patterns may produce secondary conditioning of the pharmacological effects on the brain and sensitization of some neurobiological systems (Prochaska & Goldstein 1991). This paper explores the restraining forces and interventions related to nicotine and smoking. The paper presents the biopsychological factors contributing to nicotine dependence, and then suggests the possible interventions to deter the effects on nicotine consumption.

Discussion and Analysis

In general, tobacco use behaviors are maintained by nicotine's ability to enhance desirable effects (positive reinforcement) and to dispel undesirable effects (negative reinforcement). As a clinical disorder, chronic tobacco use is classified as nicotine dependence when three of seven criteria are met within the same 12-month period. In particular, the four most prominent criteria of nicotine dependence are

Developing a tolerance to nicotine,

Experiencing nicotine withdrawal,

Showing a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to quit or cut down the use of nicotine

Continuing to use nicotine despite the development of physical or psychological problems that are likely to have been caused or exacerbated by tobacco products.

Positive Reinforcement and Sensitization

The most widely studied neurobiological substrate associated with nicotine-related positive reinforcement is dopamine. The mesolimbic dopamine system has long been touted as the reward center of the brain that shapes goal-directed, including drug use behavior (Breslau, 1995). Activation of dopamine release within the same system suggest that nicotine produces powerful rewarding effects for people who use tobacco (Jack & Sakire, 2009).



Negative Reinforcement: A Story of Emotion Regulation

When considering negative reinforcement associated with tobacco use disorders, nicotine administration is believed to have negative mood-alleviating properties via its manipulation of neurotransmitters such as serotonin (Prochaska & Goldstein 1991). Specifically, low levels of serotonin have been strongly associated with negative mood states, and nicotine administration appears to increase levels of this neurotransmitter.

Important Factors in Nicotine Dependence

Genetics

The development of nicotine dependence cannot result entirely from random interactions between neurobiological and psychosocial factors (Breslau, 1995). It has been suggested that individuals who use tobacco and become nicotine dependent may be different from individuals who do not use tobacco because of biologically based predispositions that produce qualitatively different reinforcement from nicotine administration.

Gender and Ethnicity

Rates of nicotine dependence ...