INTRODUCTION TO PSYSCHOLOGY

Introduction to Psychology



Introduction to Psychology

a.Define the fundamental attribution error and explain how it distorts social perception.

In attribution theory, the fundamental attribution error (also known as correspondence bias or attribution effect) is a theory describing cognitive tendency to predominantly over-value dispositional, or personality-based, explanations (i.e., attributions or interpretations) for the observed behaviors of others, thus under-valuing or acknowledging the potentiality of situational attributions or situational explanations for the behavioral motives of others. In other words, people predominantly presume that the actions of others are indicative of the "kind" of person they are, rather than the kind of situations that compels their behavior. However, the over attribution effect generally does not account for our own ability to self-justify our behaviors; we tend to prefer interpreting our own actions in terms of the situational variables accessible to our awareness. This discrepancy is called the actor-observer bias and stands in direct opposition of the Fundamental Attribution Error.

A number of "debiasing" techniques have been found effective in reducing the effect of the fundamental attribution error:

Taking heed of "consensus" information. If most people behave the same way when put in the same situation, then the situation is more likely to be the cause of the behavior.

Asking oneself how one would behave in the same situation.

Looking for unseen causes; specifically, looking for less-salient factors.

Additionally, it was found that if the participants in a study were told that there were ulterior motives for a writer to take a particular position, such as a professor holding a certain view point on the topic, they were less likely to fall victim to the fundamental attribution error.

b.Describe the effect of cognitive dissonance on behavior and attitude change.

Cognitive dissonance can play a tremendous role in conflict -- both in its perpetuation and in its elimination. Both large-scale and small-scale conflicts can be aggravated and/or lessened because of cognitive dissonance. An example from ethnic conflict may help to demonstrate.

A large-scale conflict, particularly one based on identity such as an ethnic conflict, can be perpetuated by cognitive dissonance. In Northern Ireland, for instance, the image of Protestants or Catholics as inhuman allows for actions that otherwise might not be perpetuated. It can also lead people involved in the conflict to ignore information that might contradict these viewpoints. For instance, a Catholic may intentionally avoid or simply be unreceptive to ideas that paint Protestants in a positive light, or vice versa. Once negative cognitions are in place, they are often reinforced by other similar cognitions while contradictory thoughts (which would shed light on a situation) are ignored or avoided.

This all means that a Protestant or Catholic who otherwise may strongly believe in the notion that "Thou shall not murder" may participate in terrorist activities. Although these two cognitions are dissonant, this dissonance can be overcome by creating new cognitions ("they aren't human" or "they're barbarians," etc.) or by emphasizing one cognition at the expense of the other. Perhaps more importantly, the conflict can be perpetuated by the fact that these people aren't ...