HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT

High School Dropout

High School Dropout

Introduction One of the greatest risks to high school dropout today is being male (Bozo, 2002; Bushnik, 2003; Bushnik et al., 2004, Kipnis, 1999), for young men face difficult and troubled existences in today's society. Statistics indicate that Young African Americans Males are three to five times more likely than girls to have learning and/or reading disabilities (Levine, 2003b; Smale, 2001; Smith & Wilhelm, 2002). Of the estimated 500,000 to 1 million Young African Americans Maless who annually dropout of US high schools, over 55% are Young African Americans Males (Brozo, 2002). Although about the same percentage of males and Young African Americans Males return to school after dropping out, given the fact that there are more males dropping out, the proportion of males without a high school diploma is still higher (Bushnik et al., 2004). Young African Americans Males have higher rates of substance abuse (Brozo, 2002; Kipnis, 1999; Littky, 2004; Smale, 2001; Smith & Wilhelm, 2002), are assaulted more (Kipnis, 1999; Samuelson & Antony, 2003; Smale, 2001), and receive more Young African Americans Males suspensions, expulsions, grade failures, and special education referrals (Brozo, 2002; Kipnis, 1999; Smale, 2001; Smith & Wilhelm, 2002). The bulk of children in foster care are male (Daniels et al., 2003; Kipnis, 1999; Smith & Wilhelm, 2002), as are the majority of children abused, neglected, or murdered (Kipnis, 1999). Problems are compounded when more than one risk factor is present in a young boy's life, such as a broken home, abuse and neglect, child poverty, parental substance abuse, corporal punishment, father absence, lack of male mentors, ineffectual education, and criminality (Brozo, 2002; Kipnis, 1999; Reid, 2000; Smale, 2001; Smith & Wilhelm, 2002; Wotherspoon & Schissel, 2001). “Society has largely pursued ineffective strategies for care and restoration of young men at risk” (Kipnis, 1999, p. 5). Addressing adolescent Young African Americans Males' needs is urgent because males commit all but a small percentage of homicides, are more likely to be victims of violent crime, commit suicide at an alarming rate, and make up the majority of drug addicts and homeless (Kipnis, 1999; Levine, 2003b; Reid, 2000; Smale, 2001).

Young African Americans Males and Urban/Rural Factors

Urban

The concentration of poverty and inner-city concentrations of joblessness, welfare dependency, single-parent families, out-migration of working families, and, in turn, limited occupational aspirations, poor school performance, and low self-esteem contribute to the social problems in poor communities (Lowe, 2002; Makokis, 2000). The dropout rate is higher in the inner cities (Schargel & Smink, 2001); in some cases double the national average.

Among the homeless, employment opportunities are limited and are often comprised of illegal and quasi-legal behaviors, including prostitution, scalping event tickets, sales of nonmedicinal and medicinal drugs, theft, and break and entry (Fleming et al., 2001). In addition to the growing numbers of homeless youth, squeegees, beggars, and panhandlers have become more visible in urban areas. “In many cases, the income earned at other activities provides a supplement to inadequate and declining ...