Gender Discrimination At Top Management Level

by

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW1

Historical Overview of Women in the Labour Force1

Women Ignored for Senior Leadership Roles2

Challenges for Women in Leadership4

Barriers to Advancement5

Glass Ceiling6

Stereotyping7

Lack of Mentoring8

Theoretical Framework9

Social Role Theory10

Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders11

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY13

The Research Approach13

The Research Problems14

The Research Design15

The Data Collection16

Survey17

Interview17

Sampling18

Sampling steps18

Sampling Technique19

Sampling Size19

Qualitative Research20

Quantitative Research20

Data Analysis20

Qualitative Data Analysis20

Quantitative Data Analysis21

REFERENCES22

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Historical Overview of Women in the Labour Force

Theorists of the great man theory used the word man in defining leadership (Bernthal & Wellins, 2006, 31). Throughout the early 20th century, leadership was a male concept (Coleman, 2000, 37). Collins (2004) noted, “History is shaped by the leadership of great men” (p. 20). The attributes associated with being successful leaders have traditionally been the so-called masculine traits (Coleman, 2000, 37). The traits included objectivity, drive, and an authoritative manner (Cormier, 2007, 262). Early leadership literature presented supportive evidence that women and men develop differently as leaders (Kawakami, White & Langer, 2000; Diekman & Eagly, 2000). Current research results indicate the contrary (Cormier, 2007; Ingold, 2007). When provided with opportunity and support, women can realize extraordinary accomplishments in organisations (Gmür, 2006, 104).

Initial research results often indicated the perception that women lacked the necessary skills and characteristics to make good leaders ((ngold, 2007, 449). A repeated reason provided in prior research on the issue is the perception that men are more suitable for leadership roles than are women (Gmür, 2006, 105). Oakley (2000, 321) explored the public perception of successful managers from a sample of male and female middle managers in the United States, and study results indicated that the characteristics attributed to managers demonstrated an association with the depiction of a male rather than a female.

The populace became interested in gender and leadership when women began to search for and secure entry to management positions in the 1970s. Writings at that time supported the advancement of women (Probert, 2005, 51). The literature included how-to advice books on adapting to the male corporate culture. The academic literature included articles on eliminating obstacles that impeded the advancement of women in organisations (Roddy, 2004, 487).

The business environment is rapidly changing and the competitive landscape has become intense (Sweetser, 2005, 19). In an environment where an organisation's competitive advantage comes from valuing people as much as profit, organisational leaders should optimize and integrate environment, culture, and development for the full use of human assets (Probert, 2005, 51). With the presence of women increasing throughout all levels of organisations, a focus on the leadership development of women is necessary.

Women Ignored for Senior Leadership Roles

Researchers often reference the tacit rules and agreements that govern workplace culture, structure, and gender dynamics (Oakley, 2000; Nelson & Levesque, 2007). While subjective, the elements of organisational culture are nonetheless extremely powerful. The elements are capable of limiting advancement opportunities for women and undermining the female experience in the workplace (Kephart & Schumacher, 2005, 3).

BMO Financial Group sponsored a study on the financial performance of 353 companies from 1996 ...