CHAPTER 2 FOR 13005778

Chapter 2 for 13005778

Table of Content

TABLE OF CONTENT2

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW3

Introduction3

Cultural ecological theory, acculturation, and academic development4

Language proficiency and academic development6

English reading development for ELLs8

Examining two groups of ELLs: students of Hispanic and Somali origin9

Scaffolding as practical knowledge of teachers11

Types of scaffolding11

Social scaffolding15

Conceptual scaffolding15

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Introduction

Addressing the educational needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students (CLDs) is a growing challenge in the United States. At the time of the 2000 United States census, there were 3 million foreign-born children in the United States, and one-fifth of all pre-kindergarten to twelfth-grade students were children of immigrants (Capps et al., 2005). These high levels of immigration are anticipated to continue and even increase in coming years (Fix & Passel, 2003). Although immigration has played an important role in United States history and development, the most recent wave of immigration includes people with languages, religions, and cultures that represent a marked contrast to those of previous waves of immigrants (Darboe, 2003). Identifying ways to promote the academic progress of students from ethnic minority backgrounds and those with limited English proficiency (i.e., those who are English Language Learners; ELLs) is of great importance. Many of these students experience significant barriers to their learning, both in and outside of United States classrooms ([Eamon, 2002], [Entwisle and Alexander, 1993] and [Haveman and Wolfe, 1995]), resulting in frequent academic failure (Kindler, 2002). This academic failure translates into widening achievement gaps and reduced opportunities to fully participate in a modern, high-tech, knowledge-based economy.

Recent federal legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires schools to demonstrate that specific subgroups of students, including ELLs, are making adequate yearly progress. This legislation points to the nation's commitment to providing effective educational services to all students. School psychologists are in a unique position to help schools address the academic needs of ELLs. As professionals who provide assistance with assessment and intervention activities for struggling students, they can help ensure that services are tailored to the unique needs of individual children. School psychologists must help determine whether language deficiencies or cultural disadvantage are contributing to individual student academic difficulties as required by law for determining whether a student qualifies for various services due to a specific disability (Individuals with Disabilities Educational Improvement Act, 2004). They need to be familiar with the many factors that affect the academic progress of CLDs in providing consultation services to educators. With greater knowledge of factors that influence academic development among CLDs, school psychologists can assist teachers in developing appropriate expectations and intervention plans for those who are struggling academically.

Cultural ecological theory, acculturation, and academic development

Worrell (2005) highlighted the potential for Ogbu's (1992) cultural-ecological theory to inform the field of school psychology. Ogbu suggested that to understand the literacy difficulties of various minority groups, one must go beyond the current home, school, and classroom environment and begin to understand the historical contexts by which the given group became part of the current society. Of importance within Ogbu's theory is how both ...