Bioethics

In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted started experimenting with electromagnetism. In 1831, Michael Faraday starts to experiment with electromagnetic induction. By 1833, Duchenne de Boulogne had begun experiments involving the simulation of muscles with surface electrodes. This was followed in 1853 by Hermann von Helmholtz measuring the speed of nerve impulses with electrical stimulation and a mechanical twitch recorder; this results in pioneering discoveries in electromagnetism (reciprocity etc.) Bartholow does experiments regarding the excitability of human brain while stimulating exposed cortex in patients with large cranial defect in 1874.

In 1896, Arsenne d'Arsonval sees phosphenes and vertigo (& in some persons syncope ...