Feminization & Migration

Feminization & Migration

Castle & Miller identify 'feminization' as a major trend in contemporary migration.

The phrase "feminization of migration" refers to the gradual increases in the percentages of migrants that are female (Castles and Miller, 2001; Migration Policy Institute, 2003). However, the feminization of migration is associated with the "feminization of poverty." Recent discussions of economic change note the following contemporary challenges that can exist in developing countries: structural change including the transformation of the agriculture industry, the demise of small locally owned industries and/or the introduction of new industries by multinational corporations; rising male unemployment due to the loss of traditional sites of employment; and increasing international debt load accompanied by government need to generate foreign currency. Researchers suggest that growing insecurities cause states, households and individuals to increasingly rely on women's labor for their survival, a phenomenon that has been referred to as the "feminization of survival" (Sassen 2000).

If the "feminization of survival" is associated with the "feminization of migration," under what conditions does the latter occur and what forms does it take? First and foremost, the status of women relative to men and the level of gender equality within sending societies and within families are critical factors stimulating or retarding the migration of women compared with men and the conditions under which migration occurs. Gender specific propensities to migrate reflect access to information, access to resources, and societal beliefs about appropriate behaviors of women and men. If men control the decision making processes, have greater access to resources, and to information, they may be more likely to migrate than women. A male dominated migration pattern also is enhanced when strong gender scripts exist that deny women agency and autonomy in decision making and in actions. Different gender specific propensities to migrate also may reflect differences in "human capital," defined as job related skills that arise from education and labor market experience. If women face greater barriers than men in receiving education and/or in enhancing labor market relevant skills, the perceived and real payoff for migration may be less, thus reducing their propensity to migrate.

In actuality, the impact of women's status and gender equality on their propensity to migrate operates at three different levels: the larger society, the family and the individual (Grieco and Boyd, 1998; Lim, 1995). Societal factors include the following three traits: the capacity of the state to protect its members and their livelihoods; state policy toward migration; and community norms and cultural values that determine whether or not women can migrate and, if they can, how (i.e. labor or family reunification) and with whom (alone or with family). In the first case, migration is often an involuntary option for those living in areas characterized by war, political strife, and governmental incapacity to protect individuals and their livelihoods. Many of those in flight-situations, monitored by the UNHCR, are women and children. Loss of livelihood, either by women themselves or by family member also is linked to the risk of being trafficked for ...